[1] Abdur Razzak S, Bahar K, Islam KMO, et al (2024) Microalgae cultivation in photobioreactors: sustainable solutions for a greener future. Green Chemical Engineering 5:418–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gce.2023.10.004
[2] Rezvani F, Rostami K (2023) Photobioreactors for utility-scale applications: effect of gas–liquid mass transfer coefficient and other critical parameters. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30:76263–76282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27644-4
[3] Deprá MC, Dias RR, Zepka LQ, Jacob-Lopes E (2024) Tackling Old Challenges in Microalgal Biotechnology: The Role of Photobioreactors to Advance the Technology Readiness Level. Processes 13:51. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13010051
[4] Uyar B, Ali MD, Uyar GEO (2024) Design parameters comparison of bubble column, airlift and stirred tank photobioreactors for microalgae production. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 47:195–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00449-023-02952-8
[5] Kumar K, Das D (2012) Growth characteristics of Chlorella sorokiniana in airlift and bubble column photobioreactors. Bioresource Technology 116:307–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.03.074
[6] Prabhu H, Ravishankar CM, Ganesan A, et al (2025) Enhancing random forest model prediction of gas holdup in internal draft airlift loop contactors with genetic algorithms tuning and interpretability. Sci Rep 15:9325. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92728-9
[7] Merchuk JC, Gluz M (1999) Bioreactors, Air-lift Reactors. In: Flickinger MC, Drew SW (eds) Encyclopedia of Bioprocess Technology: Fermentation, Biocatalysis, and Bioseparation. Wiley, New York, pp 320–353
[8] Xu X, Zhang Y (2023) Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in an Airlift Loop Reactor: Comparison between Using Two Kinds of Spargers. Processes 12:35. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12010035
[9] Zarei Z, Malekshahi P, Trzcinski AP, Morowvat MH (2022) Investigation of Hydrodynamic Parameters in an Airlift Photobioreactor on CO2 Biofixation by Spirulina sp. Sustainability 14:7503. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127503
[10] (2014) CFD simulation of multiphase flow in an airlift column photobioreactor. Global NEST Journal 16:1121–1134. https://doi.org/10.30955/gnj.001478
[11] Ding N, Li C, Wang T, et al (2021) Evaluation of an enclosed air-lift photobioreactor (ALPBR) for biomass and lipid biosynthesis of microalgal cells grown under fluid-induced shear stress. Biotechnology & Biotechnological Equipment 35:139–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/13102818.2020.1856717
[12] Shi J, Guo K, Wang Z, et al (2021) Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulation of Hydrodynamics in a Two-Stage Internal Loop Airlift Reactor with Contraction-Expansion Guide Vane. ACS Omega 6:6981–6995. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c06277
[13] Amanna B, Bahri PA, Moheimani NR (2024) Application of computational fluid dynamics in optimizing microalgal photobioreactors. Algal Research 83:103718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2024.103718
[14] Davarnejad R (2012) CFD Simulation of Scale Influence on the Hydrodynamics of an Internal Loop Airlift Reactor. ENG 04:668–674. https://doi.org/10.4236/eng.2012.410085
[15] Benyahia F, Jones L (1997) Scale Effects on Hydrodynamic and Mass Transfer Characteristics of External Loop Airlift Reactors. J Chem Technol Biotechnol 69:301–308. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4660(199707)69:3%3C301::AID-JCTB716%3E3.0.CO;2-Z
[16] Juraščík M, Blažej M, Annus J, Markoš J (2006) Experimental measurements of volumetric mass transfer coefficient by the dynamic pressure-step method in internal loop airlift reactors of different scale. Chemical Engineering Journal 125:81–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2006.08.013
[17] Ndiaye M, Gadoin E, Gentric C (2018) CO 2 gas–liquid mass transfer and k L a estimation: Numerical investigation in the context of airlift photobioreactor scale-up. Chemical Engineering Research and Design 133:90–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2018.03.001
[18] Gouveia E, Hokka C, Badino-Jr A (2003) The effects of geometry and operational conditions on gas holdup, liquid circulation and mass transfer in an airlift reactor. Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering 20:363–374
[19] Blažej M, Kiša M, Markoš J (2004) Scale influence on the hydrodynamics of an internal loop airlift reactor. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification 43:1519–1527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2004.02.003
[20] Calvo F, Bula A, Di Mare L, Garcia S (2017) CFD simulation of multiphase (liquid–solid–gas) flow in an airlift column photobioreactor. Acta Mech 228:2413–2427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00707-017-1828-1
[21] Korpijarvi J, Oinas P, Reunanen J (1999) Hydrodynamics and mass transfer in an airlift reactor. Chemical Engineering Science 54:2255–2262. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(98)00439-4
[22] Koide K, Kurematsu K, Iwamoto S, et al (1983) Gas holdup and volumetric liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient in bubble column with draught tube and with gas dispersion into tube. J Chem Eng Japan / JCEJ 16:413–419. https://doi.org/10.1252/jcej.16.413
[23] Van Baten JM, Krishna R (2003) Comparison of Hydrodynamics and Mass Transfer in Airlift and Bubble Column Reactors Using CFD. Chem Eng & Technol 26:1074–1079. https://doi.org/10.1002/ceat.200301796
[24] Liew SY, Lam ZY, Gimbun J (2017) Experimental measurement and CFD simulation on the hydrodynamics of an internal-loop airlift reactor. MATEC Web Conf 111:01002. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201711101002
[25] Jasim M, Mohammed T, Sabri L (2022) Air-lift Reactor’s Characterization via Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD): Review. ETJ 40:484–497. https://doi.org/10.30684/etj.v40i3.2261
[26] Emamshoushtari MM, Tavakoli O, Harasek M, et al (2026) CFD–experimental assessment of open-tube airlift photobioreactors for CO₂ capture and nutrient removal. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 14:120533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.120533
[27] Yu Z, Yue S, Cheng J, et al (2026) CFD-guided optimization of a multi-hole cap for hydrodynamic intensification in an internal-loop airlift bioreactor treating refined soybean oil wastewater. Food and Bioproducts Processing 158:247–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2026.05.011
[28] Grace J, Wilson J (1976) The Boundary Layer over a Populus Leaf. J Exp Bot 27:231–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/27.2.231
[29] Drew DA, Lahey RT (1987) The virtual mass and lift force on a sphere in rotating and straining inviscid flow. International Journal of Multiphase Flow 13:113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9322(87)90011-5
[30] Tomiyama A, Tamai H, Zun I, Hosokawa S (2002) Transverse migration of single bubbles in simple shear flows. Chemical Engineering Science 57:1849–1858. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2509(02)00085-4
[31] Xu L, Liu R, Wang F, Liu C-Z (2012) Development of a draft-tube airlift bioreactor for Botryococcus braunii with an optimized inner structure using computational fluid dynamics. Bioresource Technology 119:300–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.05.123
[32] Luo H-P, Al-Dahhan MH (2010) Local gas holdup in a draft tube airlift bioreactor. Chemical Engineering Science 65:4503–4510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2010.04.037
[33] Merchuk JC, Garcia Camacho F (2010) Bioreactors: Airlift Reactors. In: Encyclopedia of Industrial Biotechnology, 1st ed. Wiley, pp 887–953
[34] Abashar ME, Narsingh U, Rouillard AE, Judd R (1998) Hydrodynamic Flow Regimes, Gas Holdup, and Liquid Circulation in Airlift Reactors. Ind Eng Chem Res 37:1251–1259. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie9704612
[35] Blažej M, Annus J, Markoš J (2004) Comparison of Gassing-out and Pressure-step Dynamic Methods for kLa Measurement in an Airlift Reactor with Internal Loop. Chemical Engineering Research and Design 82:1375–1382. https://doi.org/10.1205/cerd.82.10.1375.46737
[36] Zhang X, Guo K, Qi W, Zhang T, Liu C (2017) Gas holdup, bubble behaviour, and mass transfer characteristics in a two-stage internal loop airlift reactor with different screens. Can J Chem Eng 95:1202–1212. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.22767
[37] Ayazi Shamlou P, Pollard DJ, Ison AP (1995) Volumetric mass transfer coefficient in concentric-tube airlift bioreactors. Chem Eng Sci 50:1579–1590. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(94)00517-6.